A History of Fraternal Organizations

While the terms "fraternity" and "sorority" may be used to describe any number of social and charitable organizations, including the Lions Club, Epsilon Sigma Alpha, International, and the Shriners, in the United States and Canada fraternities and sororities are most commonly known as social organizations of higher education students (though there are organizations like fraternities in other countries as well; for example, the German Student Corps). Fraternities are all-male or mixed-sex; the female-only equivalent is called a sorority, a word coined by Gamma Phi Beta in 1874. Consequently, there exist some all-female fraternities which were named before this, such as Kappa Alpha Theta, founded in 1870 and Alpha Phi, founded in 1872. Fraternities and sororities are also referred to as student corporations or academic corporations, or simply corporations.

With few exceptions (notably "Acacia," "FarmHouse," and "Triangle"), the names of fraternities and sororities consist of two or three Greek letters. For this reason, fraternities and sororities are known collectively as the Greek System, and its members are known as Greeks. The use of Greek letters started with the first such organization, Phi Beta Kappa, which used Greek letters to hide their secret name.

History and Development

The Phi Beta Kappa Society, founded on December 5, 1776 at the College of William and Mary (Williamsburg, Virginia), is generally recognized to be the first Greek-letter student secret society in North America. By legend, it was founded by individuals rejected for membership from an older student society known as the Flat Hat Club, which counted Thomas Jefferson among its alumni.

The society formed as a forum to discuss topics not covered in the regimented classical education of universities of the era—lending the name literary fraternity to its type. Ironically, that education was responsible for the name—most students were well-versed in Greek, Latin, and Hebrew; Phi, Beta, and Kappa were the initials of an esoteric Greek motto. In addition to its secrecy and selection of a Greek name, it also introduced a code of high ideals, secret rituals and handclasps, membership badges, and oaths that characterized later Greek letter societies.

Greek Letter Societies

The first non-academic fraternity was the Kappa Alpha Society, established at Union College in Schenectady, New York on November 26, 1825. By this time, the literary fraternities had themselves become stodgy. KA's founders took many of Phi Beta Kappa's practices, but formed their organization around fellowship, making the development of friendship their primary purpose. The Sigma Phi Society formed in competition in March 1827, followed by Phi in November. These three constitute the Union Triad.

Sigma Phi became the first "national" fraternity when it opened the first satellite chapter, at Hamilton College, in 1831. This spawned Samuel Eells' founding of Alpha Delta Phi in 1832. Chapters soon opened on more campuses, spawning more rivals. Beta Theta Pi was founded at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio in August 1839. Unlike its predecessors, however, it made expansion one of its key principles. Zeta Psi was founded in 1847 and was the first official coast to coast fraternity by the creation of a chapter at the University of Berkeley (California) . It also has the privilege of being the first fraternity in Canada, by 12 years, with the establishment of its University of Toronto chapter in 1879. Phi Delta Theta (1848) and Sigma Chi (1855), also founded at Miami, also aggressively expanded to other campuses. These three constitute the Miami Triad. Although growth was stunted by the American Civil War, the system underwent phenomenal growth in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. All societies founded after the Civil War follow the Miami Triad structure.

Women's organizations also formed contemporaneously: the Adelphian Society was established in 1851 at Wesleyan College in Macon, Georgia, and I.C. Sorosis in 1867 at Monmouth College, Monmouth, Illinois. However, they did not take their Greek names (Alpha Delta Pi and Pi Beta Phi) until much later, so Kappa Alpha Theta (January 1870) and Kappa Kappa Gamma (October 1870) are the first women's Greek letter societies. The term "sorority" was not popularized until later in the 19th century, so most were founded as "women's fraternities" or "fraternities for women." The first national to adopt the word "sorority" was Gamma Phi Beta, established in 1874 at Syracuse University in Syracuse, New York.

The Purposes and Types of Fraternities

There are various types of fraternities: social, service, professional, and honorary fraternities. The most recognizable (and cliched) form of fraternity is the college social fraternity, as lampooned by John Belushi in the film Animal House (co-written by Chris Miller, an Alpha Delta Phi alumnus from the Dartmouth Chapter and Harold Ramis, a Zeta Beta Tau alumnus from the Washington University in St. Louis Chapter). Most of these fraternities were originally founded on dedication to principles such as community service, sound learning, and leadership qualities, though some have become purely "social". In response to the developing stereotype of excessive alcohol use in fraternity life, some fraternities today are alcohol-free (referred to as "dry"). Apart from the use of Greek letters, the common theme among all such organizations is the building of friendships and "brotherly" or "sisterly" bonds through shared experiences and efforts.

Most fraternities maintain a ritual system that is highly symbolic in nature and kept a closely guarded secret. Some signs point to common ancestry in both sorority and fraternity ritual, but most are likely derived from Masonic order ritual. Other "fraternity secrets" may include passwords, songs, handshakes, journals and initiation rites. The notable exception is Delta Upsilon, founded originally as anti-secret in 1834, and is the only international non-secret men's fraternity.

Meetings of the active members are generally secret, and not to be discussed without the formal approval of the chapter as a whole.

Uniquely among most campus organizations, members of social fraternities and sororities often live together in a large house or apartment complex. This serves two purposes. First, it emphasizes the bonds the members share as "brothers" or "sisters". Second, the house serves as a central location for the events and administration of the fraternity. Because of the unique nature of this setup, the individual organizations themselves at their respective schools are known as "houses". Professional, academic or honorary societies rarely maintain a permanent housing location, and some may be barred from doing so by their national organization.

Such a house can usually be identified by large Greek letters on the front of the house, advertising the name of the group. Depending on the size of the house, there may be anywhere from three to twenty bedrooms or more. The larger houses generally have a large meeting room and/or dining room, commercial kitchen and study room. There is usually a lounge of some sort, access to which is often restricted to fully initiated members. Fraternities and sororities will also often maintain a chapter room, to which only initiates may ever be admitted and even whose existence may be kept secret. The walls of the house may be decorated with pictures of past house events, awards and trophies, decorative (or historic) paddles, or composites of members from past years.

It should be noted, at many large universities, it is traditional for many Greek organizations to enjoy the use of large, Victorian style mansions on campus. Penn State is an example of a school with many large fraternity and sorority houses which are architecturally impressive and notable. In more modern times, some university administrations have sought to seize or buy out these houses and convert them into academic use. This ends the use of the house for social purposes and helps curb overall binge drinking on campus.

For reasons of cost, liability and stability, housing is usually overseen by an alumni corporation or its respective national fraternity/sorority organization. As a result, some houses prohibit members of the opposite sex from going "upstairs" or into the individual bedrooms. Other houses may impose a curfew or "open door" policy. Furthermore, some national organizations restrict or prohibit alcohol in the house at any time.

During a period known as "Rush" or "Rush Week", fraternities and sororities invite fellow students to attend events at the house (or on-campus) and meet the current members of the organization. At the end of this period, the house invites the visitors of their choice to "pledge" the fraternity. If the invitation, or "bid", is accepted, the student will enter a period of pledgeship. A student may pledge only one fraternity at a time, and most often agree to never pledge a second fraternity if they have already been initiated into another one, though this does not preclude such events from happening. In general, this restriction only applies to social fraternities/sororities, and does not bar a member from being a member or later joining professional, service, or honorary fraternities/sororities.

Pledge requirements for each house vary, and some houses have eliminated pledgeship entirely. However, common requirements usually include wearing a pledge or new member pin, learning about the history and structure of the fraternity and the local chapter, performing a service of some kind, and maintaining a deferential attitude toward current members (known as Seniors, Ancients, etc.). Though it has become rarer, some still practice something like hell week, when pledges are submitted to compounded endurances, which may still include paddling, which may also be applied during so-called paddle games. Upon completion of the pledgeship and all its requirements, the active members will invite the pledges to be initiated and become active members.

The pledgeship serves as a probationary period in the fraternity membership process where both the fraternity and the pledge make sure that they have made the right choice. Almost always, after a pledge has been initiated they have a membership in the organization for life. Those pledges who demonstrate their commitment to the organization and its members are initiated, while those who demonstrate little-to-no effort and/or cause divisions and conflict are dismissed. Occasionally, however, houses will invite anyone who completes the program to become active members, in order to maintain their numbers (and survival).

Starting in the mid to late 1990s, the terms "Rush" and "Pledge" were generally replaced with "Recruitment" and "New Member" respectively. Change is slow in the Greek world, and the use of older terms is still fairly common among the chapters. Some schools and National Offices use the newer terms.

Hazing is the harassment or persecution of prospective "new members" or "pledges" of a group. Often meaningless, difficult, or humiliating tasks, it can be physical, psychological or both.

Historically, hazing as it is known as of 2005 did not come into widespread existence until after World War I. Soldiers returning from the war re-entered colleges, and brought with them the discipline and techniques learned in boot camp. However, roughness toward young recruits has a long history. One fraternity, Sigma Nu, was founded in opposition to the excessive hazing taking place at Virginia Military Institute after the Civil War.

The activities which devolved into modern hazing originated as legitimate team-building techniques; some are still used today in the US military. In their essence, they are meant to make the individual fail as an individual, but succeed as part of a team. Thus the individual learns to become a valuable asset to the team and be loyal to its success. This philosophy of team development continued to be used in fraternal organizations as each subsequent war refreshed the pool of ex-military students.

Eventually, however, with fewer military students entering college/fraternities, these techniques were passed on to others who did not understand their purpose or usage, and hazing became a brutal and hazardous exercise as each new class tried to create new challenges simply for their own sake. Many fraternities and sororities hazed their pledges, especially during certain initiation rites. In extreme cases, some pledges even died as a result. Though now created for decoration, the iconic "pledge paddle" is a tradition and reminder of this history.

During the 1960s-1980s, however, most organizations (especially those governed by alumni at the National level) implemented clear no-hazing policies. The North-American Interfraternity Conference (formerly National Interfraternity Conference) also requires anti-hazing education for members, as do most universities. Since at least the 1990s, if hazing was conducted at a local chapter, it was without the knowledge or consent of the national organization and outside the guidelines for their initiation rituals. If discovered, it usually results in the revocation of the local chapter's charter and probably expulsion of members from the organization.

Many chapters today still struggle with the legacy of hazing. It is seen as tradition, and many find that the best indicator of a pledge's worth to the group is their willingness to endure the challenges set out before them. While hazing rarely exists in its most brutal forms, many chapters still incorporate behavior such as yelling or demanding menial tasks be performed that are deemed by their universities and national headquarters to be hazing.